The Enigma of Reason

Knowledge Graph: The Enigma of Reason (Mercier & Sperber, 2017)

Editorial spotlight: ↑ reasoning as social tool, not truth-finder

Concepts

• myside bias (Mercier & Sperber frame) (importance 5): The tendency to generate reasons favoring one's own position. Not a bug but a feature: reasoning evolved to argue, not to find truth alone.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• confirmation bias as adaptive (importance 4): Selective attention to evidence supporting pre-existing beliefs. Argumentative theory reframes this as functional for argument production.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• epistemic vigilance (Sperber et al.) (importance 4): Cognitive mechanisms to evaluate others' arguments and resist manipulation. Co-evolved with argumentative reasoning.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• motivated reasoning reframed (importance 4): Traditional view: reasoning corrupted by emotion. Mercier & Sperber: reasoning IS motivated by argumentative goals—that's its function.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• argument evaluation asymmetry (importance 4): People are better at spotting flaws in others' arguments than in their own. Natural for argumentative ecology.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• intuitive inference mechanisms (importance 3): Automatic, modular systems (folk physics, folk psychology, etc.) that generate conclusions. Reasoning's inputs.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• wisdom of crowds (argumentative frame) (importance 3): Diverse groups aggregate better judgments than individuals—if they argue. Reasoning improves collective, not individual, cognition.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• reason as metacognitive mechanism (importance 3): Reasoning reflects on intuitions, produces justifications. It's a second-order mechanism, not primary cognition.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• audience design in reasoning (importance 3): Reasoners tailor arguments to their audience's beliefs and values. Evidence that reasoning is social communication, not abstract.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• cheater detection in reasoning (importance 3): Reasoning excels at detecting violations of social contracts (cheating). Poor at abstract logic. Evidence for social function.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• ostensive-inferential communication (Sperber & Wilson) (importance 3): Communication = showing intention to convey meaning. Reasoning evaluates communicative intentions (epistemic vigilance).. Source: (from training memory of book).
• bounded rationality (Simon) (importance 2): Reasoning constrained by cognitive limitations. Mercier & Sperber: reasoning isn't bounded—it's optimized for argument, not truth.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• massive modularity hypothesis (importance 2): Mind = collection of specialized modules. Reasoning interfaces with these to produce arguments.. Source: (from training memory of book).

Claims

• Mercier & Sperber's Interactionist Theory of Reason (importance 5): Reasoning evolved forArgumentAction: producing and evaluating arguments in social contexts. Not for solitary truth-seeking.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• Mercier & Sperber's Argumentative Theory (importance 5): Reasoning's primary function is to produce justifications for oneself and arguments to convince others, not individual cognition optimization.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• reasoning evolved for persuasion (importance 5): The primary evolutionary function of reasoning is to persuade others, not to improve individual decision-making.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• reasoning evolved for justification (importance 5): Reasoning's other primary function: producing post-hoc justifications for intuitive conclusions to maintain social standing.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• dual-process: intuition vs reason (importance 4): System 1 (intuition) generates conclusions automatically. System 2 (reasoning) produces justifications post-hoc, primarily for social display.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• reasoning as post-hoc rationalization (importance 4): Intuition produces conclusion first; reasoning generates justifications after. Classic view reversed.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• quality of deliberation determines outcome (importance 4): Good deliberation: diverse views, open argument. Bad: echo chambers, homogeneity. Reasoning quality is social, not individual.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• science as institutionalized argumentation (importance 4): Science succeeds not via individual rational thinkers but via adversarial argumentation: peer review, replication, debate.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• reasoning co-evolved with communication (importance 4): Language and reasoning emerged together. Reasoning's function is argumentative communication, not solitary thought.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• biases as adaptive for argumentation (importance 4): So-called cognitive biases (confirmation, myside) are features, not bugs. They make argument production efficient.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• reasoning for reputation management (importance 4): Producing good justifications maintains social reputation as reliable, competent. Evolutionary payoff of argumentative skill.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• reasoning enables complex cooperation (importance 4): Argumentative reasoning allows negotiation, coordination, division of labor. Essential for human ultra-sociality.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• cultural ratchet via argumentative reasoning (importance 4): Cumulative culture requires arguing about innovations, justifying changes. Reasoning enables faithful transmission with improvement.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• progress requires institutional reasoning norms (importance 4): Intellectual progress happens when institutions enforce good argumentative norms: openness, diversity, fair challenge.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• reason and language coevolved (importance 4): Language evolved for communication; reasoning evolved for producing/evaluating arguments. They're interdependent.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• intellectualist view (rejected) (importance 3): Traditional view: reasoning evolved to improve individual cognition and decision-making. Mercier & Sperber argue this is false.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• reason as modular mechanism (importance 3): Reasoning isn't domain-general but draws on domain-specific intuitions (social, causal, etc.) to produce arguments.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• evolutionary mismatch: reason in modern contexts (importance 3): Reasoning evolved for small-group argumentation. Modern mass media, echo chambers create mismatch: reasoning without opposition.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• reasoning as human universal (importance 3): All cultures show argumentative reasoning. Not learned from Western logic but part of human nature.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• formal logic ≠ natural reasoning (importance 3): Formal logic (syllogisms, predicate calculus) is a recent cultural invention. Natural reasoning is argumentative, not formal.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• rhetoric and reason intertwined (importance 3): Classical separation of logic (reason) vs rhetoric (persuasion) is false. Reasoning IS rhetorical—it evolved for persuasion.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• reasoning and trust co-evolved (importance 3): Argumentative reasoning required epistemic vigilance. Trust and skepticism co-evolved as reasoning became social tool.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• emotion guides reasoning direction (importance 3): Emotions set reasoning goals (what to argue for). Reasoning produces justifications for emotionally-driven conclusions.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• reasoning depends on language (importance 3): Explicit reasoning requires linguistic formulation. Non-linguistic animals show proto-reasoning but not full argument production.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• education should teach argumentative norms (importance 3): Traditional education teaches formal logic (ineffective). Should teach how to argue productively in groups: listen, concede, challenge fairly.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• critical thinking as individual skill (myth) (importance 3): Schools try to teach 'critical thinking' as solitary skill. Mercier & Sperber: reasoning is social—teach group deliberation instead.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• reasoning and identity intertwined (importance 3): Beliefs are identity markers. Reasoning defends identity as much as ideas. Social function: signal group belonging.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• reasoning in coalition formation (importance 3): Persuasion and justification help form alliances, coalitions. Reasoning as social glue in group dynamics.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• reasoning vulnerability to manipulation (importance 3): Skilled arguers can exploit myside bias, lazy reasoning. Epistemic vigilance counters but imperfect.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• internet amplifies reasoning failures (importance 3): Online echo chambers remove argumentative opposition. Myside bias unchecked, polarization accelerates.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• democracy requires good deliberation (importance 3): Democratic institutions work only with diverse, adversarial reasoning. Homogeneous deliberation produces bad policy.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• social norms sustained by reasoning (importance 3): Norm violations trigger justification demands. Reasoning maintains norm compliance via public accountability.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• reasoning develops through social interaction (importance 3): Children's reasoning improves via arguing with peers, parents. Not via solitary maturation—social practice matters.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• reasoning balances tradition and change (importance 3): Argumentative reasoning allows challenging traditions when justified. Epistemic vigilance prevents arbitrary change.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• moral progress via social argument (importance 3): Moral change (abolition, civil rights) occurred through argumentative movements. Reasoning as moral persuasion tool.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• reasoning challenges vs legitimizes authority (importance 3): Reasoning can justify authority (legitimacy) or challenge it (dissent). Dual function: stabilize and destabilize power.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• consilience via diverse argumentative communities (importance 3): Convergence across fields (consilience) happens when different argumentative communities challenge each other.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• expertise as domain-specific intuition + argument skill (importance 3): Experts have rich intuitions in their domain + skill at arguing within their community. Reasoning serves social function even at expert level.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• free speech necessary for reasoning (importance 3): Argumentative reasoning requires hearing opposing views. Free speech = infrastructure for collective reasoning.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• social media amplifies bad reasoning dynamics (importance 3): Social media optimizes for engagement (myside bias) not truth. Reasoning's group-error-correction mechanism undermined.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• future institutions must support good deliberation (importance 3): Solving modern problems requires designing institutions that enforce diverse, adversarial, fair argumentation.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• comprehension as argument evaluation (importance 3): Understanding speech involves evaluating speaker's implicit arguments. Comprehension = argumentative processing.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• reasoning evaluates testimony (importance 3): Much knowledge comes from others' testimony. Reasoning assesses credibility, detects deception—epistemic vigilance.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• reasoning requires conscious attention (importance 2): Unlike intuition, reasoning demands conscious focus. This limits its scope but suits its social-justification function.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• markets as non-argumentative aggregation (importance 2): Markets aggregate preferences without reasoning/argumentation. Complementary mechanism to deliberation.. Source: (from training memory of book).

Empirical results

• Mercier & Sperber: group deliberation corrects bias (importance 5): Groups of diverse reasoners outperform individuals. Each person's myside bias is countered by others' opposing arguments.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• lazy reasoning phenomenon (importance 4): People accept the first plausible reason that comes to mind when arguing. Thoroughness emerges only when challenged by others.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• social contract reasoning advantage (importance 4): People reason far better about cheating detection and social exchanges than about abstract logic. Supports argumentative theory.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• solitary reasoning failure (importance 4): Individuals reasoning alone show massive bias, poor performance. Group reasoning corrects this. Evidence against intellectualist view.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• echo chambers break reasoning (importance 4): Environments without opposition allow myside bias to dominate. Reasoning's error-correction mechanism (diverse argument) removed.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• group polarization via reasoning (importance 3): Homogeneous groups become more extreme through discussion. Myside bias amplified without diverse opposition.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• teaching as argumentation (importance 3): Effective teaching involves argumentative exchange. Students learn by challenging and being challenged, not by passive reception.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• legal systems as argumentative institutions (importance 3): Law structures adversarial argumentation: prosecution vs defense. Truth emerges from argument, not individual reasoning.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• intuition faster than reasoning (importance 3): Intuitive conclusions arrive in milliseconds. Reasoning takes seconds to minutes. Speed difference suggests distinct functions.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• expert intuition vs novice reasoning (importance 3): Experts rely on intuition, novices on explicit reasoning. Supports view that reasoning is for justification, not primary problem-solving.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• children's early argumentative reasoning (importance 3): Young children produce justifications and evaluate others' arguments before formal education. Evidence for innate argumentative capacity.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• backfire effect in reasoning (importance 3): Counter-evidence sometimes strengthens belief via motivated reasoning. Predicted by argumentative theory: challenge triggers defensive argument.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• belief perseverance via myside bias (importance 3): Beliefs persist despite counter-evidence. Reasoning generates defenses for existing views rather than seeking truth.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• jury deliberation effectiveness (importance 3): Juries often outperform individual judgments when diverse. Argumentative reasoning's strength: collective error correction.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• political reasoning as identity defense (importance 3): Political reasoning rarely changes views. Function: signal group membership, defend identity. Not truth-seeking.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• propaganda exploits argumentative reasoning (importance 3): Propaganda provides pre-made justifications for desired beliefs. Reasoning accepts them if not socially challenged.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• fake news spread via myside reasoning (importance 3): False stories that fit existing views spread fast. Reasoning produces justifications without epistemic vigilance.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• innovation adoption via persuasion (importance 3): New ideas spread when inventors persuade others. Reasoning as diffusion mechanism for cultural innovations.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• Scientific Revolution via institutional argument (importance 3): Science succeeded when institutions (Royal Society, journals) formalized adversarial argumentation. Not via individual genius.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• peer review as institutionalized vigilance (importance 3): Scientific peer review = epistemic vigilance at scale. Errors caught via adversarial argument, not individual rationality.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• ideological reasoning as group loyalty (importance 3): Ideological arguments defend group identity more than truth. Reasoning's coalitional function dominant in politics.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• filter bubbles via algorithmic homogeneity (importance 3): Algorithms show users agreeable content. Argumentative reasoning starved of opposition, polarization increases.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• philosophy as dialectical reasoning (importance 2): Philosophical progress occurs through argument and counterargument, not solitary reflection. Supports argumentative theory.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• reasoning is cognitively costly (importance 2): Reasoning requires attention, working memory, time. People avoid it unless socially necessary (challenged by others).. Source: (from training memory of book).
• cultural variation in reasoning styles (importance 2): Cultures vary in preferred argument forms (deductive vs analogical, etc.). Universal function, variable styles.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• hindsight bias as post-hoc reasoning (importance 2): 'I knew it all along' effect. Reasoning retrofits justifications to make outcomes seem inevitable.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• sunk cost fallacy via justification pressure (importance 2): Continuing investment to justify past decisions. Reasoning produces justifications for consistency, not optimality.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• expert disagreement as persistent (importance 2): Experts in same field often disagree. Reasoning doesn't converge to truth alone—it requires social challenge.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• gossip as reasoning about others (importance 2): Social talk involves argument and justification about others' behavior. Reasoning's everyday argumentative function.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• religious reasoning as group binding (importance 2): Theological arguments serve social cohesion more than truth-seeking. Reasoning defends shared beliefs, strengthens group.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• representative democracy as delegated argument (importance 2): Representatives argue on behalf of constituents. Reasoning delegated to professional arguers—works when diverse.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• public goods via argumentative persuasion (importance 2): Contributing to public goods requires persuading others to cooperate. Reasoning as coordination tool.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• punishment justified by reasoning (importance 2): Punishment requires public justification. Reasoning makes sanctions socially acceptable.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• fairness reasoning in children (importance 2): Children invoke fairness arguments by age 3-4. Early evidence of argumentative reasoning for resource distribution.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• hypocrisy detection via reasoning (importance 2): People readily spot inconsistency in others' arguments. Epistemic vigilance function of reasoning.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• animal proto-reasoning limits (importance 2): Animals show inference but not argumentation. Reasoning's linguistic-social component is human-specific.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• tool use requires minimal reasoning (importance 2): Tool innovation relies on intuition, trial-and-error, not reasoning. Reasoning's role: justify adoption to others.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• replication crisis from weak argumentation (importance 2): Many published results don't replicate. Reasoning failure: insufficient adversarial challenge, myside bias in review.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• paradigm shifts via generational argument (importance 2): Kuhn: old paradigms die with their proponents. New generation argues for new view. Reasoning can't overcome deep myside bias.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• interdisciplinary reasoning challenges (importance 2): Cross-field collaboration difficult: different argumentative norms, vocabulary. Reasoning is domain-adapted, not universal.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• censorship as argumentative suppression (importance 2): Censorship prevents counter-arguments from being heard. Reasoning fails without diverse inputs.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• coordination via argumentative negotiation (importance 2): Game theory: coordination problems. Humans solve via arguing about norms, precedent. Reasoning as coordination tool.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• bargaining as argumentative process (importance 2): Negotiation involves justifying offers, countering others' justifications. Reasoning central to human economic exchange.. Source: (from training memory of book).

Entities

• Wason selection task (importance 3): Classic reasoning task where people perform poorly on abstract versions but well on social-contract versions. Evidence for domain-specific reasoning.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• Kahneman & Tversky heuristics-and-biases (importance 3): Catalog of reasoning errors. Mercier & Sperber reinterpret: not design flaws but features of argumentative reasoning.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• Haidt's moral intuitionism (importance 3): Moral judgments are intuitive; reasoning produces justifications post-hoc. Supportive evidence for Mercier & Sperber.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• evolutionary psychology framework (importance 3): Mind shaped by evolutionary pressures. Mercier & Sperber apply this: reasoning evolved for argumentative function.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• dual-process theory (Kahneman, Evans) (importance 3): System 1 (fast, automatic) vs System 2 (slow, deliberate). Mercier & Sperber reinterpret System 2 as argumentative reasoning.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• Relevance Theory (Sperber & Wilson) (importance 3): Comprehension guided by expectation of relevance. Argumentative reasoning evaluates relevance of others' claims.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• Aristotle's rationality view (importance 2): Classical view: humans as rational animals, reasoning as individual capacity for truth. Mercier & Sperber's foil.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• Descartes' methodical doubt (importance 2): Solitary reasoning method for finding truth. Mercier & Sperber argue this is unnatural and ineffective.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• prediction markets aggregate better (importance 2): Markets aggregate diverse views via incentives. Supportive parallel: diverse arguments + accountability improve accuracy.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• Socratic method as adversarial reasoning (importance 2): Socrates' dialectic: truth via argumentative challenge. Early recognition of reasoning's social-adversarial nature.. Source: (from training memory of book).
• Fodor's modularity thesis (importance 2): Mind has domain-specific modules. Mercier & Sperber: reasoning draws on modular intuitions, isn't itself modular.. Source: (from training memory of book).

Relations

• Mercier & Sperber's Interactionist Theory of Reason generalizes Mercier & Sperber's Argumentative Theory
• Mercier & Sperber's Argumentative Theory supports reasoning evolved for persuasion
• Mercier & Sperber's Argumentative Theory supports reasoning evolved for justification
• reasoning evolved for persuasion enables myside bias (Mercier & Sperber frame)
• reasoning evolved for justification enables myside bias (Mercier & Sperber frame)
• myside bias (Mercier & Sperber frame) exemplifies confirmation bias as adaptive
• Mercier & Sperber's Argumentative Theory contradicts intellectualist view (rejected)
• dual-process: intuition vs reason supports reasoning as post-hoc rationalization
• reasoning as post-hoc rationalization evidences Mercier & Sperber's Argumentative Theory
• lazy reasoning phenomenon evidences Mercier & Sperber's Argumentative Theory
• Mercier & Sperber: group deliberation corrects bias evidences Mercier & Sperber's Argumentative Theory
• Mercier & Sperber: group deliberation corrects bias evidences solitary reasoning failure
• epistemic vigilance (Sperber et al.) enables argument evaluation asymmetry
• epistemic vigilance (Sperber et al.) supports Mercier & Sperber's Argumentative Theory
• Wason selection task exemplifies social contract reasoning advantage
• social contract reasoning advantage evidences Mercier & Sperber's Argumentative Theory
• Kahneman & Tversky heuristics-and-biases motivates biases as adaptive for argumentation
• biases as adaptive for argumentation supports Mercier & Sperber's Argumentative Theory
• motivated reasoning reframed supports Mercier & Sperber's Argumentative Theory
• solitary reasoning failure refutes intellectualist view (rejected)
• argument evaluation asymmetry exemplifies epistemic vigilance (Sperber et al.)
• reason as modular mechanism requires intuitive inference mechanisms
• intuitive inference mechanisms supports dual-process: intuition vs reason
• Haidt's moral intuitionism evidences reasoning as post-hoc rationalization
• group polarization via reasoning evidences myside bias (Mercier & Sperber frame)
• wisdom of crowds (argumentative frame) supports Mercier & Sperber: group deliberation corrects bias
• quality of deliberation determines outcome enables Mercier & Sperber: group deliberation corrects bias
• science as institutionalized argumentation evidences Mercier & Sperber's Argumentative Theory
• reasoning co-evolved with communication supports Mercier & Sperber's Argumentative Theory
• teaching as argumentation exemplifies reasoning co-evolved with communication
• legal systems as argumentative institutions exemplifies science as institutionalized argumentation
• evolutionary mismatch: reason in modern contexts supports Mercier & Sperber's Argumentative Theory
• reason as metacognitive mechanism supports dual-process: intuition vs reason
• intuition faster than reasoning evidences dual-process: intuition vs reason
• expert intuition vs novice reasoning evidences reasoning as post-hoc rationalization
• reasoning is cognitively costly enables lazy reasoning phenomenon
• children's early argumentative reasoning evidences reasoning as human universal
• reasoning as human universal supports Mercier & Sperber's Argumentative Theory
• formal logic ≠ natural reasoning supports reasoning as human universal
• rhetoric and reason intertwined supports Mercier & Sperber's Argumentative Theory
• audience design in reasoning evidences reasoning co-evolved with communication
• reasoning and trust co-evolved requires epistemic vigilance (Sperber et al.)
• cheater detection in reasoning exemplifies epistemic vigilance (Sperber et al.)
• emotion guides reasoning direction supports motivated reasoning reframed
• reasoning depends on language requires reasoning co-evolved with communication
• backfire effect in reasoning evidences myside bias (Mercier & Sperber frame)
• hindsight bias as post-hoc reasoning exemplifies reasoning as post-hoc rationalization
• sunk cost fallacy via justification pressure exemplifies reasoning as post-hoc rationalization
• belief perseverance via myside bias evidences myside bias (Mercier & Sperber frame)
• education should teach argumentative norms contradicts critical thinking as individual skill (myth)
• critical thinking as individual skill (myth) supports intellectualist view (rejected)
• jury deliberation effectiveness evidences Mercier & Sperber: group deliberation corrects bias
• political reasoning as identity defense evidences reasoning and identity intertwined
• reasoning and identity intertwined supports reasoning for reputation management
• reasoning for reputation management enables reasoning enables complex cooperation
• reasoning enables complex cooperation supports Mercier & Sperber's Argumentative Theory
• reasoning in coalition formation exemplifies reasoning enables complex cooperation
• reasoning vulnerability to manipulation requires epistemic vigilance (Sperber et al.)
• propaganda exploits argumentative reasoning exemplifies reasoning vulnerability to manipulation
• internet amplifies reasoning failures evidences evolutionary mismatch: reason in modern contexts
• fake news spread via myside reasoning evidences myside bias (Mercier & Sperber frame)
• democracy requires good deliberation requires quality of deliberation determines outcome
• social norms sustained by reasoning enables reasoning enables complex cooperation
• fairness reasoning in children evidences children's early argumentative reasoning
• hypocrisy detection via reasoning evidences epistemic vigilance (Sperber et al.)
• reasoning develops through social interaction supports Mercier & Sperber's Argumentative Theory
• cultural ratchet via argumentative reasoning evidences reasoning enables complex cooperation
• innovation adoption via persuasion exemplifies cultural ratchet via argumentative reasoning
• moral progress via social argument exemplifies cultural ratchet via argumentative reasoning
• Socratic method as adversarial reasoning precedes science as institutionalized argumentation
• Scientific Revolution via institutional argument evidences science as institutionalized argumentation
• peer review as institutionalized vigilance exemplifies epistemic vigilance (Sperber et al.)
• replication crisis from weak argumentation refutes peer review as institutionalized vigilance
• consilience via diverse argumentative communities evidences quality of deliberation determines outcome
• expertise as domain-specific intuition + argument skill supports expert intuition vs novice reasoning
• progress requires institutional reasoning norms supports science as institutionalized argumentation
• ideological reasoning as group loyalty exemplifies political reasoning as identity defense
• free speech necessary for reasoning requires democracy requires good deliberation
• echo chambers break reasoning contradicts Mercier & Sperber: group deliberation corrects bias
• filter bubbles via algorithmic homogeneity enables echo chambers break reasoning
• social media amplifies bad reasoning dynamics exemplifies internet amplifies reasoning failures
• future institutions must support good deliberation requires progress requires institutional reasoning norms
• Fodor's modularity thesis motivates reason as modular mechanism
• evolutionary psychology framework motivates Mercier & Sperber's Argumentative Theory
• massive modularity hypothesis supports reason as modular mechanism
• dual-process theory (Kahneman, Evans) supports dual-process: intuition vs reason
• reason and language coevolved supports reasoning co-evolved with communication
• comprehension as argument evaluation evidences reason and language coevolved
• ostensive-inferential communication (Sperber & Wilson) supports comprehension as argument evaluation
• Relevance Theory (Sperber & Wilson) supports ostensive-inferential communication (Sperber & Wilson)
• reasoning evaluates testimony requires epistemic vigilance (Sperber et al.)
• Aristotle's rationality view exemplifies intellectualist view (rejected)
• Descartes' methodical doubt exemplifies intellectualist view (rejected)
• bounded rationality (Simon) supports intellectualist view (rejected)
• Mercier & Sperber's Argumentative Theory contradicts bounded rationality (Simon)
• confirmation bias as adaptive supports myside bias (Mercier & Sperber frame)
• lazy reasoning phenomenon evidences reasoning is cognitively costly
• Mercier & Sperber: group deliberation corrects bias contradicts myside bias (Mercier & Sperber frame)
• group polarization via reasoning contradicts Mercier & Sperber: group deliberation corrects bias
• quality of deliberation determines outcome contradicts group polarization via reasoning
• education should teach argumentative norms enables quality of deliberation determines outcome
• expert disagreement as persistent evidences solitary reasoning failure
• prediction markets aggregate better exemplifies wisdom of crowds (argumentative frame)
• gossip as reasoning about others evidences reasoning for reputation management
• religious reasoning as group binding evidences reasoning and identity intertwined
• censorship as argumentative suppression contradicts free speech necessary for reasoning
• representative democracy as delegated argument exemplifies democracy requires good deliberation
• markets as non-argumentative aggregation supports democracy requires good deliberation
• public goods via argumentative persuasion evidences reasoning enables complex cooperation
• punishment justified by reasoning evidences social norms sustained by reasoning
• animal proto-reasoning limits evidences reasoning depends on language
• tool use requires minimal reasoning evidences reasoning as post-hoc rationalization
• reasoning balances tradition and change enables cultural ratchet via argumentative reasoning
• reasoning challenges vs legitimizes authority supports social norms sustained by reasoning
• paradigm shifts via generational argument evidences myside bias (Mercier & Sperber frame)
• interdisciplinary reasoning challenges evidences reason as modular mechanism
• coordination via argumentative negotiation evidences reasoning enables complex cooperation
• bargaining as argumentative process exemplifies coordination via argumentative negotiation
• reasoning requires conscious attention supports reasoning is cognitively costly
• cultural variation in reasoning styles supports reasoning as human universal
• philosophy as dialectical reasoning exemplifies science as institutionalized argumentation

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